概述制宪权对人民僭越的危险
北安市人法院 刘成江
立宪主义理论将政治国家设想为一个以宪法为基础、通过统一规范体系构成的政治实体。可是，规范并不能自我发现或自我创建。为了避免出现宪法“自己设定自己”这种谬论，施密特提出了“政治决断”，它将“人民”这个构建国家的制宪主体，和作为构建对象的立宪国家贯通起来；并且在此基础上，他进一步提出了“制宪权”理论，阐释了人民构建政治国家的方式：根据政治决断，人民预设了自己作为“政治地存在着的联合人群”；以此为基础，人民作为政治存在通过政治意志“确定了自身存在的类型和规范”。其中，人民实践“政治意志”就是行使制宪权。制宪权理论通过“具体的政治存在”避免了制宪时出现宪法自我设定这种谬误，但它又留下了新的问题有待解决：“人民”作为抽象的政治统一体，通过“政治决断从政治存在中产生出来，确定了自身存在的类型和规范”；此间由“产生”到“确定”，必须凭借具体的掌权者来组织人民行使制宪权，权力由人民转移到掌权者手中，就造成了权力所有者和行使者的分离，掌权者表达的意志决断并不一定真实代表人民意志，由此产生了制宪权主体可能被僭越的危险。
之所以会产生这个问题，是因为施密特在设计制宪权的实现程序时，默认了一个前提：具体组织、参与制宪过程的人，他们正当地代表了人民的政治意志，即掌权者享有并行使权力都是正当的。只有这样，立宪过程才能被认为是制宪权的行使过程，制宪结果才能被认为是政治决断的真实反映，即依据制宪秩序而产生的政治国家能够满足民主原则所规定的正当性要求。
但和理论设计有所出入的是，现实中声称代表人民的掌权者并不总是能够获得人民认同，即不能基于权力事实就推定权力具有正当性。事实上，施密特自己也已经认识到，制宪权之所以能使政治国家获得正当性，并不是因为制宪事实，而是因为“宪法产生于制宪权权力和权威的决断，如果这种权力和权威受到承认，宪法就具有正当性……”正是“受到承认”才是制宪权赋予宪法正当性的关键程序，如果不满足“承认”这个前提，制宪所产生的国家，它声称具备的正当性就可能是虚假的。
况且，如果承认一个政权，可以根据它所自称为“民主”的制宪过程就推定为已经获得人民的正当认同，那么，一个实行开明专制的君主国，同一个由恐怖组织通过暴动控制局势、再以制宪形式推行统治的国家之间，就不会有什么根本的区别，恐怕前者还会对人民更好些。
但在认识到这个问题之后，施密特却并没有在制宪权的理论中给出有效的解决方案。要解除人民被僭越的危险，实际上就是要解决这样一个问题：如何在制宪权权力所有者和行使者分离的结构基础上，使制宪权获得承认，即获得正当的权威认同。
虽然施密特在制宪权理论中曾提到“没有必要区分权力和权威”，可是他也不得不承认，在国家学说的整体意义上，区分权力和权威仍具有非常重要的意义，正是这种区分暴露出制宪权中存在人民被僭越的危险：制宪权主体享有的权力，是对制宪程序中掌权者行为进行权威判断的权力，它“是实实在在的”一种认同力量，表明主权之所属，而掌权者的权力也是一种力量，它通常被论述为主权的衍生物(如立法权力、军事权力等)，掌权者享有权力这种事实只是产生了“将个人之意志加诸他人之行动的可能性”，“可能性”能否转为“现实性”则取决于权威；权威是一个解释正当性的范畴，它解释了权力为什么能够得到服从。符合权威的判断标准，掌权者的权力就在获得正当性认同的意义上被认为获得了权威，认同的主体就是人民；此时才能认为掌权者的统治能够成为一种“成功的命令或嘱咐”。因此，制宪权之所以能够产生有效的宪法和法律，是因为它默认了这个前提：人民对制宪程序中的掌权者已经作出了权威认同这种判断。
但如果这个默认的前提只是虚假的，掌权者只是根据力量优势推行自己的意志，然后纯粹在握有权力的事实基础上声称自己获得了人民的权威认同，那么制宪权就会蜕变成一种形式，构建的只是“语义性的立宪国家”。在当代立宪主义语境下，这种情形可能导致政权权威认同虚假化，并且它已经不仅仅是停留在设想中的危险，而已经成为现实的问题，最突出的例子就是美伊战争。
其实早在战争结束前，齐泽克就已经指出，这场由外来掌权者根据“华盛顿共识”推进的民主化制宪运动，已经演变为这样一种滑稽的景象：“美国给人民带来新的希望和民主，然而，同样不领情的人民非但没有热烈欢迎美国军队，反而拒绝接受——他们挑三拣四，收到礼物却毫无谢意，而美国的反应则像一个面对他曾无私帮助过的人们的忘恩负义而感情受伤的孩子。”最终这场由美国主导的构建未能按照原初的设想实现，撤军后，伊拉克安全局势中仍然危机四伏，时刻面临冲突升级的危险，这说明，美国所扶植的现任伊拉克“本土”政权也尚未完全获得制宪权主体的认同。伊拉克局势的动荡从反面说明：被僭越的人民会选择突破现有政权体系，以摧毁秩序的方式去走向新的制宪。
中国人民银行关于重新颁布《中国人民银行关于外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》的通知(附英文)
中国人民银行
中国人民银行关于重新颁布《中国人民银行关于外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》的通知(附英文)
中国人民银行
中国人民银行上海、天津、广东、浙江、江苏、辽宁、深圳、大连、青岛、武汉、厦门、珠海、汕头、海南、南通、宁波省、市分行：
现将《中国人民银行关于外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》发给你行，请遵照执行。一九八三年二月一日公布的《中国人民银行关于侨资外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》同时废止。
请你行将此《管理办法》转发给所在地的各外资金融机构代表处。
关于外资金融机构的联络处、办事处更改为代表处的问题，请各联络处、办事处到当地工商行政管理局办理新的一年登记手续时一并办理。
附：关于重新颁布《中国人民银行关于外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》的说明（略）
附：中国人民银行关于外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法
第一条 根据《中华人民共和国国务院关于管理外国企业常驻代表机构的暂行规定》，为规范对外资金融机构在中国常驻代表机构（以下简称“常驻代表机构”）的管理，制定本办法。
第二条 本办法所称外资金融机构系指外国资本的银行、证券公司、投资公司、保险公司、财务公司、信用卡公司、金融性租赁公司。
第三条 常驻代表机构是其总管理机构的派出机构，称为“×××代表处”。代表处的主要负责人称首席代表，其他人员称代表、顾问、助理、秘书。
第四条 中国人民银行是常驻代表机构的审批、管理机关。外资金融机构可按本办法向中国人民银行申请在中国境内开放城市设立常驻代表机构。
第五条 外资金融机构申请在中国境内开放城市设立常驻代表机构，须向中国人民银行提交下列申请材料：
一、申请单位总管理机构董事长或总经理签署的致中国人民银行行长的申请书；
二、申请单位所在国或地区有关当局出具的开业合法证书或营业执照的副本（或影印件）；
三、申请单位总管理机构的组织章程、董事会或类似组织的名单；
四、申请单位最近三年的年报；
五、中国人民银行要求的其他资料。
前款所列除第四项外，凡用外文书写的，都须附具中文译本。
外资金融机构在北京设立常驻代表机构，须将申请材料提交中国人民银行总行；申请在北京以外的其他城市设立常驻代表机构，须将申请材料提交当地中国人民银行分行，由其审核后上报中国人民银行总行。
第六条 中国人民银行收到外资金融机构的申请材料后，在三个月内确认是否接受其申请，若接受其申请，则发给《外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构申请表》；超过三个月未得到中国人民银行确认的，申请自行失效。
外资金融机构收到中国人民银行发给的《外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构申请表》后，须在两个月内将填写好的该表连同由其董事长或总经理签署的常驻代表机构首席代表的授权书、首席代表和代表的简历，一并提交中国人民银行总行审批。
中国人民银行总行批准外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构后，发给批准证书。
第七条 获准在中国设立常驻代表机构的外资金融机构，须按照中国有关规定，持中国人民银行颁发的批准证书到常驻代表机构所在地的工商行政管理部门和公安部门办理登记手续和工作人员及其家属的居留手续，并到当地的国家专业银行开立帐户和税务部门办理税务登记手续。
第八条 常驻代表机构的工作范围是：咨询、联络、市场调查等非营利性工作。常驻代表机构在工作中，不得为其总部或分支机构（包括设在中国境内的分支机构）办理经营性业务。
第九条 常驻代表机构更换首席代表，须向中国人民银行总行提交其总管理机构董事长或总经理签署的申请书和对新任首席代表的授权书及新任首席代表的简历，由中国人民银行总行批准。
设在北京的常驻代表机构更换或增加代表、助理、外籍和港澳工作人员，须向中国人民银行总行提交其总管理机构主管部门负责人签署的申请书和被任命人的简历，由中国人民银行总行批准。
设在北京以外城市的常驻代表机构更换或增加代表、助理、外籍和港澳工作人员，须向当地中国人民银行分行提交其总管理机构主管部门负责人签署的申请书和被任命人员的简历，由当地中国人民银行分行批准，并由其报中国人民银行总行备案。
第十条 常驻代表机构雇用中国外事服务单位推荐的中国境内公民担任顾问、秘书、翻译和一般工作人员，须将被雇用中国公民的名单和简历报中国人民银行总行或当地分行备案，未履行备案手续者，不得从事常驻代表机构的工作。
第十一条 常驻代表机构变更名称，须向中国人民银行提交由其总管理机构董事长或总经理签署的申请函，经中国人民银行总行批准后，持批准证书到当地工商行政管理部门办理变更登记手续。
第十二条 常驻代表机构迁移办公地址，须向中国人民银行提交由常驻代表机构负责人签署的申请函，经中国人民银行批准后，持批准证书到当地工商行政管理部门办理变更登记手续。
设在北京的常驻代表机构迁移办公地址，报中国人民银行总行批准。设在北京以外城市的常驻代表机构迁移办公地址，报当地中国人民银行分行批准。
第十三条 常驻代表机构的首席代表需常驻中国主持日常工作。首席代表离开中国一个月以上或因故不能常驻中国主持日常工作，应事先指定专人代行其职责，并将此项指定文件寄送中国人民银行总行或当地中国人民银行分行备案。
第十四条 常驻代表机构须于每年二月底前向中国人民银行报送上一年度的工作报告。该报告须按中国人民银行规定的报表格式用中文填写，其内容须真实地反映常驻代表机构在中国的工作情况。
设在北京的常驻代表机构，其报告报送中国人民银行总行。设在北京以外城市的常驻代表机构，其报告报送当地中国人民银行分行，由其转报中国人民银行总行。
第十五条 外资金融机构撤销常驻代表机构，须提前向中国人民银行提交由其总管理机构出具的申请书，经中国人民银行总行批准后，到有关部门办理注销手续。常驻代表机构的一切未了事宜，由其总管理机构承担责任。
第十六条 中国人民银行总行负责对设在北京的常驻代表机构进行监督、检查和管理，对设在北京以外城市的常驻代表机构，中国人民银行总行授权当地中国人民银行分行对其进行监督、检查和管理。
第十七条 常驻代表机构必须遵守中国的法律、法规和本办法。对违反本办法的常驻代表机构，中国人民银行总行和当地分行有权对其进行处理。
第十八条 本办法适用于对在香港、澳门、台湾地区注册的金融机构设立常驻代表机构的管理。
第十九条 本办法自公布之日起施行。中国人民银行一九八三年二月颁布的《中国人民银行关于侨资外资金融机构在中国设立常驻代表机构的管理办法》同时废止。
Measures of the People's Bank of China on Control of the Estab-lishment of Resident Representative Offices in China by Foreign BankingInstitutions
(Promulgated for Implementation on June 11, 1991, unvaldated onApril 29, 1996)
Whole Doc.
Article 1
These Measures are formulated for the purpose of regulating the
control of resident representative offices in China of foreign banking
institutions (hereinafter referred to as resident representative offices),
in accordance with the Interim Provisions of the State Council of the
People's Republic of China for the Control of Resident Representative
Offices of Foreign Enterprises.
Article 2
Foreign banking institutions mentioned in these Measures refer to
foreign capital banks, securities companies, investment companies,
insurance companies, financial companies, credit card companies and
financial leasing companies.
Article 3
A resident representative office is an agency of its head office,
called the "such-and-such Representative Office". Its principal member in
charge is called chief representative and other members are called
representatives, advisers, assistants or secretaries.
Article 4
The People's Bank of China (PBC) is the agency in charge of matters
of examination and approval and of control in connection with resident
representative offices. Foreign banking institutions can apply to PBC for
establishment of resident representative offices in the open cities of
China in accordance with these Measures.
Article 5
A foreign banking institution which applies for establishment of a
resident representative office in China's open cities must submit to PBC
the following documents and materials for the application:
(1) written application signed by chairman of the board of directors
or president of the head office of the applying institution and addressed
to the President of the People's Bank of China;
(2) a copy (or photocopy) of the license to do business or of the
business registration certificate issued by the pertinent authorities of
the country or region where the applicant institution is located;
(3) the articles of association of the applying institution's head
office and list of members of its board of directors or other similar
bodies;
(4) annual reports of the applying institution of the last 3 years;
(5) other documents and materials as PBC may require.
Except for the foregoing item (4), all documents and materials listed
in the above paragraphs originally written in foreign languages must have
their Chinese translations attached.
A foreign banking institution applying to set up a resident
representative office in Beijing must submit its application documents and
materials to the Head Office of PBC while an application for the
establishment of such an office in other cities shall be submitted to the
local branches of PBC which, after examination of the applicant's paper,
shall report to the PBC Head Office.
Article 6
PBC, within 3 months of receiving the application papers from a
foreign banking institution, shall decide whether to accept its
application or not. If an application is accepted, the applicant shall be
issued a "Form of Application for Establishing Resident Representative
Office in China". If no confirmation has been received from PBC after the
three-months period, the application is deemed automatically invalidated.
A foreign banking institution must, within 2 months of receiving the
"Form of Application for Establishing Resident Representative Offices in
China" from PBC, submit to its Head Office for examination and approval
the filled out Form, together with the certificate of authority signed by
the applicant's chairman of the board of directors or president for the
chief representative of the resident representative office and the
personal resumes of the chief and other representatives.
The Head Office of PBC, after approving the establishment in China of
a resident representative office of a foreign banking institution, shall
issue a certificate of approval to the applicant.
Article 7
Having obtained permission to set up a resident representative office
in China, the foreign banking institution must, in conformity with
relevant regulations of the country, go to the industrial and commercial
administrative office and public security office of the locality of the
resident representative office to present the certificate of approval
issued by PBC and perform the procedures of business registration and
residence registration for its staff members and their relatives. It shall
also open a bank account with a local state specialized bank and perform
tax registration procedures at the local tax office.
Article 8
The work of a resident representative office falls within the scope
of non-profit activities such as consultation, liaison and market
investigation. In its performance of duties, the resident representative
office is not allowed to engage in business operations on behalf of its
home institution's head office or agencies, including those in China.
Article 9
For a change of the chief representative of the resident
representative office, it must present to the Head Office of PBC a letter
requesting approval of the change signed by the chairman of its board of
directors or president and the documents authorizing the appointment of a
new chief representative and giving a resume of his biography. The change
has to be approved by the PBC Head Office.
For and addition to or a change in the representatives, assistants
and employees of foreign nationalities or from Hong Kong and Macao in the
Beijing based resident representative office, it must present to the Head
Office of PBC a letter requesting approval of such personnel changes
signed by the officer in charge of the pertinent department of its head
office and personal resumes of the newly appointed personnel, the
personnel changes have to be approved by the PBC Head Office.
For similar personnel changes in resident representative offices in
other cities than Beijing, the offices concerned must present the same
kinds of documents as in the case of Beijing based office to the local
branches of PBC, which shall approve the requested personnel changes and
report them to the PBC Head Office for record.
Article 10
For employment of Chinese citizens inside the country to work as
advisers, secretaries, translators or ordinary workers at the
recommendation of Chinese foreign affairs service units, the resident
representative office must report to the Head Office or local branches of
PBC the name list of the employed Chinese citizens and their resumes for
record. Those whose employment is not reported for the record are not
allowed to work for the resident representative office.
Article 11
For a change of its name, the resident representative office must
present to PBC a letter requesting approval of the change signed by the
chairman of the board of directors or president of its head office. On
obtaining approval by the Head Office of PBC, the resident representative
office shall present the certificate of approval to the local industrial
and commercial administrative office and perform the formalities for a
change in the registration.
Article 12
For a change of office location, the resident representative office
shall present to PBC a letter requesting approval signed by its officer in
charge. On obtaining approval by PBC, the resident representative office
shall present the certificate of approval to the local industrial and
commercial administrative office and perform for formalities for a change
in the registration.
For a change of office location, the resident representative office
based in Beijing shall report to the Head Office of PBC for approval while
resident representative offices located in other cities shall report to
the local branches of PBC for approval.
Article 13
The chief representative of a resident representative office should
reside in China to take charge of its routine work. If the chief
representative leaves China for more than 1 month or if he is unable to
regularly stay in China to take charge of its routine work, he should
appoint in advance a special person to act for him and send the letter of
appointment to the Head Office of PBC or a local branch of PBC for record.
Article 14
Resident representative offices shall, before the end of February
each year, present to PBC reports of their work in the previous year. The
reports must be made in Chinese in the forms specified by PBC, and truly
reflect the offices' work in China.
The resident representative office in Beijing should send its report
to the Head Office of PBC while the resident representative offices in
other cities should send their reports to the local branches of PBC which
will forward the reports to their Head Office.
Article 15
If a foreign banking institution decides to withdraw its resident
representative office in China, it must present in advance a letter
requesting approval signed by its head office to PBC. With approval from
the Head Office of PBC, it shall proceed with the cancellation of
registration at the relevant office. It's head office shall bear
responsibility for any unsettled matters the resident representative
office involved in.
Article 16
The Head Office of the PBC is responsible for the supervision,
inspection and regulation of the resident representative office stationed
in Beijing while it authorizes its branches to exercise supervision,
inspection and regulation of the local resident representative offices in
other cities.
Article 17
The resident representative offices must abide by Chinese laws and
regulations and these Measures. If a resident representative o ffice
violates these Measures, the Head Office of PBC and its local branches
have the right to take up the matter with the resident representative
office involved in.
Article 18
These Measures are applicable to the banking institutions registered
in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan for their establishment of resident
representative offices.
Article 19
These Measures shall go into effect on the day they are promulgated.
At the same time, the Measures of the People's Bank of China for Controls
Relating to Establishing Resident Representative Office in China by
Overseas Chinese and Foreign Banking Institutions promulgated in February,
1983 are annulled.
1991年6月4日
